UNIT II
Planning for Instruction
Master teachers are also
master lesson planners. They can look at a learning goal and piece together key
components that will ensure that their students meet the goal. Not all lessons
need to be a reinvention of the wheel, but there are several hallmarks of
well-crafted lesson plans. Whether you are building your own lessons, or
searching through databases of lessons, be sure to include these 10 key
components:
1. Learning Goals
Every lesson plan should
have a clearly defined learning goal, after all, that is the reason for
teaching! I have seen some very inventive lesson plans that lack this important
ingredient. No matter how entertaining a lesson may be, if it is lacking a
learning goal, it has missed its mark.
2. Resources-
List the resources needed
for a lesson. Nothing is worse than having the perfect lesson planned only to
find that you are missing an important material. Jotting down a list of
resources needed for the lesson will ensure that you have all the paper, glue,
copies, etc. when the time comes to use them.
Don’t forget to list
digital resources as well. Make sure if you are using technology that the
websites you intend to use with students aren’t blocked at school. A great
lesson you created at home could come to a screeching halt if you can’t access
the video you found the night before. Also, be sure to note any of the plug-ins
that may be required for a website (Silverlight, Flash, Shockwave, etc.).
Often, if you can plan ahead, your tech department can confirm that you have
everything in place for your lesson.
3. Standards-
It is important to note
any standards being met by the lesson. Most schools are requiring a standard
tie in for every lesson. Even if your school doesn’t require that you note
which standards you are meeting, it is good practice to be familiar with your
state and national standards. You will be surprised how many standards you are
meeting in any given lesson. You may also choose to note how a lesson falls
into the scope and sequence for yearlong learning.
4. Anticipatory Set-
After the learning goal,
the anticipatory set is one of the most important ingredients in a quality
lesson plan. The anticipatory set engages your students in the learning that is
about to happen. It sets the tone for the lesson and makes students hungry to
learn more. Think of the anticipatory set as a movie trailer. The trailer
doesn’t tell everything about the movie but provides enough glimpses to leave
you wanting more.
A good anticipatory set
activates prior knowledge or encourages students to ask questions. Students
learn, by making connections and exploring. Build anticipation for your lesson
through props, secret notes from historians or scientists written to your
class, a video clip, a song, a short story, or role play. Students love pretend
play, so think about how you can get them to use their imagination and pretend
as they are learning.
5. Introduction-
The introduction of your
lesson is a great place to give your students a 30,000 foot view of the lesson.
Tell your students what they will be learning (the learning goal) and give them
an overview of what will be expected of them during the lesson. During the
introduction, you can also begin to activate prior knowledge about the subject.
Do this through class discussion, a KWL chart, or through small group or buddy
discussion.
6. Direct Instruction-
Direct instruction is the
meat of your lesson. This is where you are actually teaching or coaching your
students. This can be done in a variety of ways. Sometimes direct instruction
is simply giving students directions and guidelines for the self guided,
discovery learning they will be completing independently or with a friend.
During direct instruction, make sure that you are incorporating different
learning styles. I have found that one of the best ways to teach something is
through a story. Students may not recall a list of facts about the Civil War,
but if you can tell an engaging story about an event from the Civil War that
includes pictures and role-playing for students, they will be able to recall
significantly more later on.
Humans learn and relate to
the world through stories and pictures. When someone mentions September 11th,
you likely don’t think about a definition type answer of what happened on that
day. What comes to mind are the stories people told, the video, and pictures
that you saw. This is how we construct and frame knowledge. As often as you
can, teach through stories. This is a difficult task at first, because it
requires each of us to become storytellers. The rewards are great and as you
compose lesson plans; you too will begin to think in story.
7. Guided Instruction-
Guided instruction is the
instruction that happens in small groups or one on one with students. This is
the point where students have actually begun a project or assignment. As
students work, you can encourage and guide students in their learning. Guided
instruction gives you the opportunity to find out what your students know and
can do through anecdotal assessment. You are observing and helping or redirecting
as needed. Students can pair up in partners or work in small groups to guide
each other in new learning or review. During this time, if you notice students
who aren’t quite getting it, you can pull them into smaller groups to re-teach.
8. Assessment-
Every lesson should have
some form of assessment. This can be formal, informal, or anecdotal in nature.
Formal assessment is usually in the form of a test, quiz, worksheet, or project
that is turned in and graded. Informal assessment can be done during direct
instruction. Asking students to write down their answer on a small whiteboard
and hold it up, using clickers with an interactive whiteboard, or a simple
“thumbs up if you agree, thumbs down if you disagree”. These are all great
informal ways to gauge understanding. Anecdotal assessment is usually done
during guided instruction as you are walking around and observing your students
understanding. Not every lesson needs to be graded but every lesson does need
to be assessed. As the teacher, you need to know if your students understood
the learning and what re-teaching or follow-up teaching may be required. Every
lesson should include informal and anecdotal assessment throughout the lesson.
9. Closure-
Every lesson should have
some type of closure where students can summarize or wrap up their learning.
This could be done in
several ways:
Through informal class
assessment with clickers or thumbs up/down
Students could each list
something they learned as a ticket to line up for lunch
Students could write a
sentence in their journal summarizing a lesson
Students could whisper the
answer to a question to their elbow buddy
The class could complete
the KWL chart
Students could blog about
their experience or learning
Students can add a piece
of learning to a Wall Wisher wall www.wallwisher.com
Often times a completed
project is adequate closure for students, but don’t let them just turn the
project in, let students show off their work to others and discuss.
10. Differentiated Instruction-
Students all learn in
different ways and at different rates. Make sure that you account for
adjustments that may need to be made for students. For example, if you have a
student who struggles with reading, and the history lesson for the day requires
extensive reading, plan to pair them up with a buddy, make an audio recording,
etc. Think about those who will struggle with the learning and make a plan for
them.
Don’t let these rules for
lesson planning overwhelm you. After you have written out a few lessons you
will be able to start jotting notes down in your lesson planner and still
fulfill every one of these key components for a quality lesson plan.
Lesson planning takes
practice, but with a little planning, your students will be learning more
effectively and you will know exactly where they need review or additional
practice.
There are thousands and
thousands of free lesson plans online. As you are looking through lessons, make
sure that they follow these rules. If there is a component missing, add to the
lesson and customize it for your classroom
SET LESSON GOALS
Lesson goals are most
usefully stated in terms of what students will have done or accomplished at the
end of the lesson. Stating goals in this way allows both teacher and learners
to know when the goals have been reached.
To set lesson goals:
1. Identify a topic for
the lesson. The topic is not a goal, but it will help you develop your goals.
The topic may be determined largely by your curriculum and textbook, and may be
part of a larger thematic unit such as Travel or Leisure Activities. If you
have some flexibility in choice of topic, consider your students’ interests and
the availability of authentic materials at the appropriate level.
2. Identify specific linguistic
content, such as vocabulary and points of grammar or language use, to be
introduced or reviewed. These are usually prescribed by the course textbook or
course curriculum. If they are not, select points that are connected in some
significant way with the topic of the lesson.
3. Identify specific
communication tasks to be completed by students. To be authentic, the tasks
should allow, but not require, students to use the vocabulary, grammar, and
strategies presented in the lesson. The focus of the tasks should be topical,
not grammatical. This means that it may be possible for some students to
complete the task without using either the grammar point or the strategy
presented in the first part of the lesson.
4. Identify specific
learning strategies to be introduced or reviewed in connection with the lesson.
See Motivating Learners for more on learning strategies.
5. Create goal statements
for the linguistic content, communication tasks, and learning strategies that
state what you will do and what students will do during the lesson.
STEPS IN DESIGNING A UNIT PLAN
As a new teacher or educator, it can be overwhelming to
face all the responsibilities in writing a good unit plan that maps to all the
audiences in our classrooms. Successful unit plans help you organize individual
lessons into a coherent structure. Careful attention to advance planning will
provide important benefits for both you and your students. You may use a
variety of approaches toward unit planning, from short- and long-term outlines
to interdisciplinary unit plans shared with instructors in other departments.
UNDERSTANDING UNIT PLANNING
Adopt unit plans to create connections
for your students.
At
its most basic level, unit planning ensures you are linking each lesson plan to
the next. As you develop a unit plan you'll support key concepts and learning
goals with a carefully mapped structure.
·
Use unit planning to weave key concepts and learning goals together over
time and between or among disciplines.
·
Consider overlapping lessons with fellow instructors to provide longer
spans of time for study and practice.
Diversify your instructional approach to
help meet the needs of more students.
You may use unit plans within your specific course. Unit
plans are also an excellent way to forge interdisciplinary connections.
Developing a multi-lesson unit structure provides you with a framework for
presenting overarching themes in a variety of ways. Students with diverse
learning styles will benefit, and you will be able to explore different ways of
teaching without veering off course or running short on time.
Plan for longer periods of time so
you're forced to pace yourself.
Planning out
several units over the course of a term, or even the entire year, will help you
recognize what you can and cannot accomplish during a given period of time.
Once you've recognized your limitations you can prioritize key concepts and
learning goals.
Map units to provide yourself with clear
guidelines.
Understanding your broad goals gives you the freedom to
have fun developing unique and engaging lessons that will help your students
meet these goals.
Sample Unit Plan for Science
Subject: 6th Grade
Science
Unit Title: Introduction
to Cells
04/01-04/05
Unit Summary:
Students will learn about
the cell as the basic unit of life, engage in activities related to cell part
identification, and examine the differences between plant and animal cells
under a microscope.
State Standard:
Organize and display
relevant data, construct an evidence-based explanation of the results of an
investigation, and communicate the conclusions
Student Goals:
·
Define the basic characteristics of life
·
Identify the differences between plant and animal cells
·
Describe cell organelles and their functions
·
In basic terms, describe photosynthesis and cell energy production.
Student Objectives:
·
Pass a unit test requiring students to answer basic questions about cell
function and organization
·
Create a visual presentation showing a cell and its components
·
Identify an animal cell and a plant cell under a microscope
·
Perform a cheek swab on themselves, examine their cells under a
microscope, and identify basic cell components
Materials
·
Textbook
·
Paper and markers
·
Microscopes
·
Clean Slides
·
Cotton swabs
·
Powerpoint with enlarged slides of cells.
·
Day 1:Introduction to life sciences and cellular biology.
Definition of life. Cells as the basic unit of life.
Read pp 60-61 in text.
Day 2 Plant vs. animal cells. Cell powerpoint pt 1.
Introduction to organelles. Cell membrane or cell wall, nucleus, mitochondria
or chloroplasts. View plant cells under a microscope.
Day 3:Organelles part 2. Student visual project. Students
will work with a partner to make posters depicting cells. Half of the class
will depict plant cells and half will depict animal cells. Organelles must be
depicted and their functions labeled.
Day 4:Students will perform a cheek swab and identify the
components of their own cells under a microscope.
Introduction to cell
energy and ATP. Description of photosynthesis.
HW: Unit review sheet.
Day 5:Unit test: traits of living things; plant vs. animal
cells; organelles; energy production.
DESIGNING A LESSON PLAN
Introduction
A lesson plan is the systematic preparation done in a scientific manner.
Effective and successful teaching mainly depends on perfect lesson planning. A
lesson plan represents a single teaching unit meant for a class period.
Generally a lesson plan is teacher’s mental and emotional visualization of
classroom activities.
Definition
“Lesson plan is the title given to a statement of the achievement to be
realized and the specific means by which these are to be attained as a result
of the activities engaged in during the period”.
Bossing
“Daily lesson planning involves defining the objectives, selecting and
arranging the subject matter and determining the method and procedure”.
Binging
and Binging
Stands – A lesson is “A plan of action”
Needs of
Lesson Planning
The lesson plan does not allow the teacher to deviate and its keep him on the
way. In the process of teaching, lesson plan is needed due to the following
reasons.
i.
Through
lesson plan, the teacher regularly achieves the teaching objectives and process
in the form of complex objectives and processes.
ii. A lesson plan develops the
possibilities of adjustment in the classroom situation which makes the teaching
effective.
iii.
A lesson
plan helps in calling every step of curriculum unit.
iv. A lesson plan helps in planning the
process of teaching on the basis of class control, motivation and individual
differences.
IMPORTANCE
OF LESSON PLAN
Planning is essential for every aspect of human activities, but for a planned
teaching more planning is required.
1.
Suitable Environment
In a lesson plan objectives are fixed and the teaching
strategies, techniques and material aid etc. are decided beforehand. When a
proper teaching environment is created, the teaching task goes in a much
planned way.
2.
Based on
previous knowledge
In preparing lesson plans, the teacher presents new
knowledge as the basis of previous knowledge of the pupils. This enables the
pupils to gain the knowledge very conveniently on one side, the teacher
succeeds in acquiring his objective on the other side.
3.
Psychological
teaching
The teacher uses proper teaching strategies,
techniques and instruments keeping in mind the interests, aptitudes, needs,
capacities and abilities of the pupils for teaching them when the lesson plans
are prepared. This makes the teaching more psychological.
4.
Limitation
of subject matter
In a lesson plan, the subject matter becomes limited.
This enables the teacher to give up irrelevant things. He only remembers
definite and limited matter and its presentation before the pupils become easy.
The pupils also receive the knowledge in a systematic and organized way.
5.
Determination
of activities
In a lesson plan, the teachers and pupils activities
are pre-decided according to the class level. This makes the teaching
activities meaningful and purposeful.
6.
Preparation
of material aids
At the time of preparing a lesson plan, the teacher
decides what facts are to be clarified by what strategies, techniques and
instruments and what aid is to be used at what time. This prepares the
necessary and effective aids before starting the teaching task.
7. Developing of teaching skill
The lesson plan acts as an important means for
developing teaching skills in the pupil-teacher.
8. Use of Theoretical knowledge
Whatever the pupil-teachers get theoretical knowledge
during their training period, that knowledge.
9. Teaching with confidence
The preparation of a lesson plan makes the subject and
other allied subjects more clearly to the teachers. This arouses self confidence
among them. When a teacher gets developed the feeling of self-confidence, then
he presents the new knowledge to the pupils with more enthusiasm and pleasure.
10. Discipline in class
By preparing lesson plan, the teacher becomes aware of
what, when and how much is to be done in the class. This absorbs all the pupils
in their respective tasks. Hence, it results in appreciable classroom
discipline.
11. Time sense
Lesson plan is prepared allotting to the duration of
the periods.
12. Teaching from memory level to reflective level
In an ideal lesson plan, development and thought
provoking questions should be asked. Also there should be an effort to stretch
the teaching from memory level to reflective level.
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL
OBJECTIVES
Defining and Writing Learning Objectives
Learning goals and
objectives help you develop a set of performance expectations, which then
enable you to develop content that is appropriate for your instruction. With
skills to prioritize and organize learning goals, you can build a teaching
foundation to ensure that you can guide and measure student learning.
o
Learning objectives measure behaviors and anticipated outcomes as a
result of instruction and require that a teacher:
o
Decide what activities and behaviors will be monitored.
o
Give students the opportunity to demonstrate what they know.
o
Discuss with students how they did on assessments.
With these ideas in mind,
you will have a frame and a guide to assessment. This process will inform your
teaching practice.
Writing Learning Objectives
One way to think about
writing learning objectives is to think about it in the following process:
A (audiences), B
(behaviors), C (conditions), D (degree)
(A) Audience: Who are you addressing? What are the individual
learning needs as well as any group needs? Example: the incoming class of grade
eight students will be able to understand how the library classifies books.
(B) Behaviors: What do the students have to do in order to show
that they have learned the lesson?
Example: identify parts of the library to answer questions about using
it as a resource for learning.
(C) Condition: What, for example, are the conditions or steps
necessary for identifying how a student will identify the parts of the library.
For example, after participating in a 50-minute orientation session, the
students will:
Name the services available to help them with
their information needs.
Locate the library resources.
Access the online catalog
and index pages. Practice searching in the library.
(D) Degree: As a teacher, you have to decide what level your
students are at. Under what
circumstances will the learning take place? What skills will be demonstrated to
show that learning is occurring? What is the expected level of accomplishment?
Try to be as realistic as
possible with the degree of competence. You don’t want to aim too low, but you
want the tasks to allow for a margin of error and improvement. In this case,
the objectives of the lesson will be met when students can access the library
indexes and the catalog.
Often, when writing
learning objectives, we are tempted to use the words “understand” or
“appreciate” to say what the learner will be able to do. These are vague terms
and not easily measurable. For the most effective assessment of the learning
experience, use only measurable action verbs that clearly describe what you
expect from the learner. When this information is shared with the students, they
will have a strong understanding of what is expected of them and how they can
demonstrate it.
In this particular example
of a learning objective, the verbs “name”, “identify”, “locate”, “access”, and
“practice” are activities and behaviors that are measurable. We suggest that you write your learning
objectives using action verbs.
A great deal of scientific
studies and teacher experiences has focused on a taxonomy (or scale) that
describes how students learn. We call
this cognitive learning. Though building
a memory and recalling facts are all important factors in being an educated
person, cognitive learning also has to do with how students gain skills in
learning through:
·
Comprehending information.
·
Organizing ideas.
·
Analyzing and synthesizing data.
·
Applying knowledge.
·
Choosing from alternatives in problem-solving.
·
Evaluating ideas or actions.
Formulating Instructional objectives at
cognitive, affective and psychomotor levels:
Instructional objectives should be SMART:
Specific - Use the ABCDs
to create a clear and concise objective.
Measurable - Write the
objective so that anyone can observe the learner perform desired action and
objectively assess the performance.
Achievable - Make sure the
learner can do what is required. Don't, for example, ask the learner to perform
complex actions if they are a beginner in an area.
Relevant - Demonstrate
value to the learner. Don't teach material that won't be used or on which you
will not assess.
Timely and Time Bound -
Ensure the performance will be used soon, not a year from now. Also, include
any necessary time constraints, such as completing a task in "10 minutes
or less."
There are three main domains of learning and all teachers
should know about them and use them to construct lessons. These domains are
·
cognitive (thinking),
·
affective (emotion/feeling), and
·
psychomotor (physical/kinesthetic).
Each domain on this page
has a taxonomy associated with it. Taxonomy is simply a word for a
classification. All of the taxonomies below are arranged so that they proceed
from the simplest to more complex levels.
Cognitive Objectives
The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the
development of intellectual skills. Listed below are the six major categories
in this domain. They start with the simplest – stating and recalling facts –
and proceed to the most complex – assessing and appraising.
Knowledge:
Remembering or
retrieving previously learned material.
Ex: arrange, define, state, label, list, memorize,
name, order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce.
Comprehension: The ability to grasp or construct meaning from material.
Ex: classify,
describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize,
report, restate, review, select, translate.
Application: The ability to use learned material, or to
implement material in new and concrete situations.
Ex: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize,
employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use,
write.
Analysis: The ability to break down or distinguish the parts
of material into its components so that its organizational structure may be
better understood.
Ex: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize,
compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish,
examine, experience, question, test.
Synthesis: The ability to put parts together to form a
coherent or unique new whole.
Ex: arrange, assemble, collect, compose,
construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare,
propose.
Evaluation: The ability to judge, check, and even critique the
value of material for a given purpose.
Ex: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose,
compare, defend, estimate, judge, predict, rate, select, support, evaluate.
Starting with basic
factual knowledge, the categories progress through comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Knowledge - Remembering or
recalling information.
Comprehension - The
ability to obtain meaning from information.
Application - The ability
to use information.
Analysis - The ability to
break information into parts to understand it better.
Synthesis - The ability to
put materials together to create something new.
Evaluation - The ability
to check, judge, and critique materials.
In the 1990's, Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, along with
David Krathwohl, one of Boom's original partners, worked to revise the original
taxonomy. The Anderson and Krathwohl Taxonomy was published in 2001 in the book
"A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives."
Here is a comparison of the original and revised taxonomies:
Note that in the revised taxonomy, synthesis and evaluation are
switched. Also, verbs are used in place of nouns to imply the action one takes
in each level.
- Remember - Using memory to recall facts and definitions.
- Understand - Constructing meaning from information.
- Apply - Using procedures to carry out a task.
- Analyze - Breaking materials into parts to determine structures and relationships.
- Evaluate - Making jugements based on checking against given criteria.
- Create - Putting materials together to form a unique product.
Affective Objectives:
Man walking off a cliff. Affective objectives are
designed to change an individual's attitude. Affective objectives refer to
attitudes, appreciations, and relationships.
Like cognitive objectives, affective objectives can also
be divided into a hierarchy (according to Krathwohl).
This area is concerned with feelings or emotions.
Again, the taxonomy is arranged from simpler feelings to
those that are more complex.
This domain was first described in 1964 and as noted
before is attributed to David Krathwohl as the primary author.
|
Affective Domain Hierarchy
|
||
|
Level
|
Definition
|
Example
|
|
Receiving
|
Being
aware of or attending to something in the environment.
|
Individual
reads a book passage about civil rights. key verbs
are,
|
|
Responding
|
Showing
some new behaviours as a result of experience.
|
Individual
answers questions about the book, reads another book by the same author,
another book about civil rights, etc.
|
|
Valuing
|
Showing
some definite involvement or commitment.
|
The
individual demonstrates this by voluntarily attending a lecture on civil
rights.
|
|
Organization
|
Integrating
a new value into one's general set of values, giving it some ranking among
one's general priorities.
|
The
individual arranges a civil rights rally.
|
|
Characterization
by Value
|
Acting
consistently with the new value.
|
The
individual is firmly committed to the value, perhaps becoming a civil rights
leader.
|
Psychomotor
Objectives:
Psychomotor learning is demonstrated by physical skills;
coordination, dexterity, manipulation, strength, speed, etc.; actions which
demonstrate the fine motor skills, such as use of precision instruments and
tools, or actions with evidence of gross motor skills, such as the use of the
body in dance or athletic performance. Verbs that apply here include bend, grasp, handle, operate,
reach, write, and perform.
This
domain is characterized by progressive levels of behaviors from observation to
mastery of a physical skill. Several different taxonomies exist.
Simpson (1972) built
this taxonomy on the work of Bloom and others:
- Perception - Sensory cues guide motor activity.
- Set - Mental, physical, and emotional dispositions that make one respond in a certain way to a situation.
- Guided Response - First attempts at a physical skill. Trial and error coupled with practice lead to better performance.
- Mechanism - The intermediate stage in learning a physical skill. Responses are habitual with a medium level of assurance and proficiency.
- Complex Overt Response - Complex movements are possible with a minimum of wasted effort and a high level of assurance they will be successful.
- Adaptation - Movements can be modified for special situations.
- Origination - New movements can be created for special situations.
Dave (1970) developed
this taxonomy:
- Imitation - Observing and copying someone else.
- Manipulation - Guided via instruction to perform a skill.
- Precision - Accuracy, proportion and exactness exist in the skill performance without the presence of the original source.
- Articulation - Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently.
- Naturalization - Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently and with ease. The performance is automatic with little physical or mental exertion.
Harrow (1972)
developed this taxonomy. It is organized according to the degree of
coordination including involuntary responses and learned capabilities:
- Reflex movements - Automatic reactions.
- Basic fundamental movement - Simple movements that can build to more complex sets of movements.
- Perceptual - Environmental cues that allow one to adjust movements.
- Physical activities - Things requiring endurance, strength, vigor, and agility.
- Skilled movements - Activities where a level of efficiency is achieved.
|
Psychomotor Domain Hierarchy
|
||
|
Level
|
Definition
|
Example
|
|
Observing
|
Active
mental attending of a physical event.
|
The
learner watches a more experienced person. Other mental activity, such as
reading may be a pert of the observation process.
|
|
Imitating
|
Attempted
copying of a physical behavior.
|
The
first steps in learning a skill. The learner is observed and given direction
and feedback on performance. Movement is not automatic or smooth.
|
|
Practicing
|
Trying
a specific physical activity over and over.
|
The
skill is repeated over and over. The entire sequence is performed repeatedly.
Movement is moving towards becoming automatic and smooth.
|
|
Adapting
|
Fine
tuning. Making minor adjustments in the physical activity in order to perfect
it.
|
The
skill is perfected. A mentor or a coach is often needed to provide an outside
perspective on how to improve or adjust as needed for the situation.
|
Here are key verbs for each level you can use when writing psychomotor
objectives:
|
Key Verbs for the Psychomotor
Domain
|
||
|
|
|
LESSON PLAN
STEPS (HERBARTIAN APPROACH)
This
approach generally known as Herbartian Five steps approach in the procedure of
the Herbartian School of pedagogy propagated by J.F. Herbart (1776-1841) and his followers.
The formal
steps involved in the approach as below
1) Introduction/Motivation
2) Presentation
3) Comparison and association
4) Generalization
5) Application
6) Recapitulation
Introduction/Motivation
This step is concerned with the task
of preparing the students for receiving new knowledge. In preparation, nothing
new is taught to students. Relevant to the topic in hand the teacher should
make himself sure of what the pupils already know , by putting a few questions
, based on the pupils previous knowledge. In general, with the help of this
step, the teacher can check the students entering behavior before he starts
teaching the lesson. Thus, testing previous knowledge, developing interest in
the minds of students and maintaining curiosity of the students can be achieved
with the help of this step.
The
following activities involved in this step
·
The
assumption about the previous knowledge of the students in relevance to the
lesson
·
The testing
of the previous knowledge
·
Utilizing
the previous knowledge for introducing the lesson
·
Motivating
thee students for studying the present lesson
Presentation
It is the key step and only through which
the actual process of teaching is going to take place. Here the aims of the
lesson should be stated clearly and the heading should be written on the
blackboard. We have to provide situation for both the teacher and the students
to participate in the process of teaching and learning. Our ultimate aim of the
presentation is to make the concepts understandable to the students. Therefore
simple language is used. Appropriate and specific examples and illustrations of
the concepts will make the understanding better. The interest of the students
on the subject matter should be maintained continuously by the way of asking
questions from time to time in this stage. The teacher should carefully and
skillfully arrange his material so that his pupils may clearly and readily
grasp it. The teacher should make proper use of questions, charts, graphs,
pictures, models and other illustrative
for demonstration and explanation.
At the end
of each section a few questions concerning that section only should be asked to
whether the pupils are now ready for the
acquisition of knew knowledge.
Comparison or Association
More
importance should be given in this stage to compare the facts observed by the
students with another concept by way of giving examples. By making use of this
comparison, the students can derive definitions or theories. The students are
encouraged to give new suitable examples for the concept instead of the
examples given in the book to make them think in an innovative manner.
Generalization
This step is
concerned with arriving at some general ideas or drawing out the necessary
conclusions by the students on the basis of the different comparisons,
contracts and associated observed in the learning material present by the teacher.
As far as possible the task of formulation should be left to students. The
teacher at this stage should try to remain in the background for providing only
necessary guidance and correction.
Application
In
this stage, the teacher makes the students to use the understood knowledge in
an unfamiliar situation. Unless the knowledge of science is applied in new
situations or in our day-to-day life, the study f science will become
meaningless. This application off scientific principles will strengthen learning
and will make the learning permanent
Recapitulation
This stage
is meant for the teachers to know whether students have grasped and understood
these concepts taught or not. This can be achieved by reviewing a lesson or by
giving assignments to the students. Only through this step achieving closure
(in teaching) is possible.
Preparation of a model lesson plan
Name of the Student Teacher : A.Bala
Class / Section / Session : 11-‘A1’
Name of the School :
Govt.Hr.Sec,School-Arasur
Subject :
Computer Science
Unit :
6th unit – Computer Communications
Topic :
Network Topology, Basic elements & Data Transmission Form
Date :
12/11/2016
INSTRUCTIONAL
OBJECTIVES :
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONAL
OBJECTIVES (G.I.O): The
Pupil’s
·
To acquire knowledge
about the Computer Communications
·
To understand about the
concept of Computer Communications
·
To develop the skills
on Computer Communications
·
To develop interest in
Computer Communications
SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES (S.I.O): The pupil’ s
·
To recall about the
Network Processes
·
To recognize the
concept of data transmission forms
·
To list out the types
of Network topologies
·
To compare both star
Network & Ring Network
·
To name out the types
of Basic elements in networking
·
Describe the concept of
Coordinating data communications
·
Differentiate between
File services & Print services
INSTRUCTIONAL
RESOURCES REQUIRED:
·
Textbook ,Flash cards ,Charts,Blackboard
·
Chalk,Duster,Models,
etc…
PREVIOUS
KNOWLEDGE ON LEARNERS:
·
To recall the purposes of Network Communications
STRUCTURE OF A FOUR-FOLD LESSON PLAN :
|
Content /
Concept
|
Specification
of Behavioral objectives
|
Learning
Experiences (Teacher / Learner Activities)
|
Evaluation
|
|
1) Network topology is used for communication
channels
2) There are five types, such as
I) Star
II) Ring
III) Bus
IV) Hybrid
V) FDDI
3) Star Network Communication devices are connected
to central head.
Ring Network Communication devices are connected in
a continuous loop
4) There are three types of Basic elements in
networking
5) Protocols are a set of rules & standards to
hold communications
6) In file services, the file transfer & file
storage process can be used.
In Print services, multiple access can be Provided
& eliminates distance constraints
7) In Coordinating data communication, the devices
that Co-ordinates the data transfer processes.
In Data communication, transmission represents the
data in analog & digital data transmission forms
|
Motivation
List out the types of Network topology
Comparison of both star & Ring Network
Name out the types of Basic elements of networking
Define Protocols
Comparison of file services & Print services
Define Coordinating data communication &
transmission forms
|
The textbook is used to introduce the topic
The hanging chart material is used by teachers to
represent the types& the students
are observing the class.
Blackboard & Textbook are used to compare the
topic by teacher & the students are listening the classes.
The flow chart is used by the teacher
The textbook is used to define Protocols by the
teacher
The chart is used to explain this concept by the
teacher
Blackboard is
used by teacher & the students are observing the class.
|
What is meant by Network topology?
What are the types of Network topology?
Differentiate the star & Ring Network?
Mention the types of Basic elements in Networking
What is meant by dry Protocols?
Difference between File services & Print
Services?
What is meant by Coordinating data communication
& Data transmission forms?
|
Recapitulation:-
·
Define Network
Topologies
·
To list out the Network
topologies
·
Describe about the
common Network services.
Assignment: Write
an assignment about common Network services & Basic elements in Networking.
Signature
of the Guide Signature of the Student Teacher
TYPES OF TEST-ITEMS:
Whether you like them or not, tests
are a way of checking your knowledge or comprehension. They are the main
instrument used to evaluate your learning by most educational institutions.
According to research studies, tests have another benefit: they make you learn
and remember more than you might have otherwise. Although it may seem that all
tests are the same, many different types of tests exist
and each has a different purpose and style.
Diagnostic
Tests
These
tests are used o diagnose how much you know and what you know. They can help a
teacher know what needs to be reviewed or reinforced in class. They also enable
the student to identify areas of weakness.
Placement
Tests
These
tests are used to place students in the appropriate class or level. For
example, in language schools, placement tests are used to check a student’s language
level through grammar, vocabulary, reading comprehension, writing, and speaking
questions. After establishing the students level, the student is placed in the
appropriate class to suit his/her needs.
Progress
or Achievement Tests
Achievement or progress tests
measure the students improvement in relation to their syllabus. These tests
only contain items which the students have been taught in class. There are two
types of progress tests: short-term and long-term.
Short-term progress tests check how
well students have understood or learned material covered in specific units or
chapters. They enable the teacher to decide if remedial or consolidation work
is required.
Long-term progress tests are also
called Course Tests because they check the learners progress over the entire
course. They enable the students to judge how well they have progressed.
Administratively, they are often the sole basis of decisions to promote to a
higher level.
Progress tests can also be
structured as quizzes, rather than as tests. They can be answered by teams of
students, rather than individuals. They can be formulated as presentations,
posters, assignments, or research projects. Structuring progress tests in this
way takes into account the multiple intelligences and differing learning styles of the students.
Proficiency
Tests
These tests check learner levels in
relation to general standards. They provide a broad picture of knowledge and
ability. In English language learning, examples are the TOEFLand IELTS exams, which are mandatory for
foreign-language speakers seeking admission to English-speaking universities.
In addition, the TOEIC (Test of English for
International Communication) checks students knowledge of Business English, as
a prerequisite for employment.
Internal
Tests
Internal
tests are those given by the institution where the learner is taking the
course. They are often given at the end of a course in the form of a final
exam.
External
Tests
External
tests are those given by an outside body. Examples are the TOEFL, TOEIC, IELTS,
SAT, ACT, LSAT,
GRE and GMAT. The exams themselves are the basis for admission to university,
job recruitment, or promotion.
Objective
Tests
Objective
tests are those that have clear right or wrong answers. Multiple-choice tests
fall into this group. Students have to select a pre-determined correct answer
from three or four possibilities.
Subjective
Tests
Subjective
tests require the marker or examiner to make a subjective judgment regarding
the marks deserved. Examples are essay questions and oral interviews. For such
tests, it is especially important that both examiner and student are aware of
the grading criteria in order to increase their validity.
Combination
Tests
Many
tests are a combination of objective and subjective styles. For example, on the
TOEFL iBT, the Test of English as a Foreign Language, the reading and listening
sections are objective, and the writing and speaking sections are subjective.
Test Construction Steps involved in constructing a
test are : -
1. Determine
the purpose of the test.
2. Identify
the learning outcomes to be measured by the test.
3. Define the
learning outcomes in terms of specific, observable behavior.
4. Outline
the subject matter to be measured by the test.
5. Prepare a
table of specifications.
6. Use the
table of specifications as a basis for preparing tests.
Educational
objectives were identified as three domains :
1. Cognitive domain
2. affective domain, and
3. psychomotor domain
The Cognitive domain is concerned
with intellectual outcomes, the affective domains with interest and attitudes,
and the psychomotor domains with motor skills.
¨
Intellectual
outcomes in the cognitive domain are
-
Knowledge (remembering previously learned materials)
-
Comprehension (grasping the meaning of material)
-
Application (using
information in concrete situations)
-
Analysis (breaking down material into its parts)
-
Synthesis (putting parts together into a whole)
-
Evaluation (judging the value of a thing for a given purpose
using definite criteria)
¨
Table of specifications is a table that states outcomes to
content and indicates the relative weight to be given to each of the various
areas.
E.g.
Table of specifications for an achievement test
 CONTENT
OUTCOMES
|
The
nature of achievement tests
|
Types
of achievement
test
|
Planning
the
test
|
Total
number of items
|
|
Knowledge
Understanding
Application
Skill
|
6
5
5
|
8
10
6
|
20
7
13
|
34
22
24
|
|
Total
number
of
items
|
16
|
24
|
40
|
80
|
Thus, the key to effective
achievement testing is careful planning.
Formative
Assessment is part of the instructional process. When
incorporated into classroom practice, it provides the information needed to
adjust teaching and learning while they are happening. In this sense, formative
assessment informs both teachers and students about student understanding at a
point when timely adjustments can be made. These adjustments help to ensure
students achieve, targeted standards-based learning goals within a set time
frame. Although formative assessment strategies appear in a variety of formats,
there are some distinct ways to distinguish them from summative assessments.
Some of the
instructional strategies that can be used formatively include the following:
·
Criteria and goal setting with students engages
them in instruction and the learning process by creating clear expectations. In
order to be successful, students need to understand and know the learning
target/goal and the criteria for reaching it. Establishing and defining quality
work together, asking students to participate in establishing norm behaviors
for classroom culture, and determining what should be included in criteria for
success are all examples of this strategy. Using student work, classroom tests,
or exemplars of what is expected helps students understand where they are,
where they need to be, and an effective process for getting there.
·
Observations go beyond walking
around the room to see if students are on task or need clarification.
Observations assist teachers in gathering evidence of student learning to
inform instructional planning. This evidence can be recorded and used as
feedback for students about their learning or as anecdotal data shared with
them during conferences.
·
Questioning strategies should be embedded in
lesson/unit planning. Asking better questions allows an opportunity for deeper
thinking and provides teachers with significant insight into the degree and
depth of understanding. Questions of this nature engage students in classroom
dialogue that both uncovers and expands learning. An "exit slip" at
the end of a class period to determine students' understanding of the day's
lesson or quick checks during instruction such as "thumbs up/down" or
"red/green" (stop/go) cards are also examples of questioning
strategies that elicit immediate information about student learning. Helping
students ask better questions is another aspect of this formative assessment
strategy.
·
Self and peer assessment helps to create a
learning community within a classroom. Students who can reflect while engaged
in metacognitive thinking are involved in their learning. When students have
been involved in criteria and goal setting, self-evaluation is a logical step
in the learning process. With peer evaluation, students see each other as
resources for understanding and checking for quality work against previously
established criteria.
·
Student record keeping helps students better
understand their own learning as evidenced by their classroom work. This
process of students keeping ongoing records of their work not only engages
students, it also helps them, beyond a "grade," to see where they
started and the progress they are making toward the learning goal.
All of these strategies
are integral to the formative assessment process, and they have been suggested
by models of effective middle school instruction.
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